Mavi Boncuk |
Turkish Cinema and Transnational Imaginations Workshop National Film Theatre,
London, 8-9 December 2000
Muslim Identity in Turkish Cinema The Case of "White Cinema"1 By Nicolas Monceau [1]
The focus of our discussion here will be on white cinema.
The release in the early 90's of several films based on a religious message formed the basis of so-called "white cinema". These films attempted to deal with the question of muslim identity in Turkey within a 90's context, especially by tackling current political or historical issues.
In order to develop the subject more precisely, we need to recall some historical reference points
concerning the islamic trend in Turkish cinema.
A- White cinema
1) The origins of white cinema
The origins of white cinema are considered to start in the 60's-70's, the golden age of Turkish cinema. At the fime, there were two antagonistic branches : Ulusal Sinema ( Ulusal is the modern Turkish word for "national"), which supported the Turkish dimension of national identity and Milli Sinema (Milli is the old Ottoman word for "national") which promoted the Islamic dimension of national identity by emphasizing the Turkish-islamic heritage of society and rejecting the influence of western cultural imperialism. The films of Milli Sinema were quite militant in their support of a religious ideology, but their aim was to counter the marxist ideology that was becoming influential in Turkey at the time.
2) The definition of white cinema
From this point of view, the emergence of white cinema in the 90's, led by the same directors, is seen as a significant revival of the islamic trend, Milli Sinema. But the works of a young generation of films makers - such as Mehmet Tanrisever, Metin Camurcu or Ismail Gunes - also bring a new dimension to Islamic cinema in Turkey. Their works established the real foundations of white cinema, according to the definition of journalist and writer Abdurrahman Sen: 2
In other words, white cinema deals less with the "national" agenda than Milli or Ulusal cinema. It takes an introspective rather than militant approach in questioning the depths of human nature. By contrast with Turkish cinema, especially commercial productions, directors of white cinema attempt to promote a particular philosophy of life in accordance with the islamic ideal, and aim to be more representative of the identity of the Muslim Turkish people.
3) The characteristics of white cinema
In the early 90's, the islamic trend in Turkish cinema experienced an important revival with the release of several box-office hits, most of them by veterans of Milli Sinema. Adbullah of Minye (Minyeli Abdullah), by Yucel Qakmakli, was the biggest hit of 1990 with more than 500 000 admissions. You Are Not Alone ! (Yalniz Degilsiniz !), by Mesut Ucakan, broke the record for local releases a year later. And, last but not least, How You Sacrified Us (Bize Nasil Kiydiniz), by Metin Camurcu, dominated the Turkish box-office in 1994. Such commercial successes also led the film makers to shoot sequels, like Adbullah of Minye II and You Are Not Alone ! II, but these failed to attract the same audiences.
It is also necessary to contextualise the emergence of white cinema in Turkey in the early 90's. There are at least three main reasons for its success, even if this was short-lived. Firstly, the growing influence of the religious Welfare Party, which was in government in 1996-97, created a positive background for attracting larger audiences. Some films of the period dealt with and supported the hottest political issues of the time, like the headscarf issue. Secondly, the easing of censorship in Turkish cinema, in the early 90's, allowed film directors to tackle new subjects, typically current political issues, which created controversial debate in the Turkish press. And finally, the stories of the films, most of them based on bestsellers in Islamic literature, also played a role in drawing large audiences. White cinema adressed itself to a particular public which failed to find what it was looking for in commercial Turkish cinema.
B - Muslim identity in white cinema
1) Muslim identity in white films Muslim identity in white films is usually conveyed through individual characters, who are shown as exemplary within a rather hostile society.
The qualities of a good muslim are depicted as follows: piety, devotion, sacrifice, tolerance, a sense of justice, forgiveness, patience and gratitude, or solidarity and generosity. These virtuous characters promote one philosophy of Islam to other characters they encounter, mostly secular, and succeed in converting them by emphasizing the humanistic message of Islam or the wisdom and holiness of Allah. The characters evolve in a rather hostile political or social context. Facing the pressures of a secular society and authorities, they are often depicted as victims of injustice or religious intolerance.
The vision of such a muslim identity is prominent in Abdullah of Minye, by Yucel Cakmakli, and The
Exile, by Mehmet Taurisever. The action of Abdullah of Minye takes place in Egypt during the reign of King Faruk under the British administration. It deals with the story of devout Abdullah, said to be an opponent of the regime and oppressed throughout his life for devoting himself to Islam. By giving a didactic portrait of an exemplary muslim, the film also condems western imperialism in islamic countries and local political regimes which are seen as corrupted. The Exile, for its part, tells the story of a school teacher exiled from Istanbul to a remote Anatolian village because of his faith. By showing exemplary patience and devotion, he succeeds in transmitting a notion of responsibility to villagers and wins their support, except for the village chief (muhtar), who is opposed to change. Close to the "hoca", who had been marginalized after the establishment of the Republic, he also fosters a new religious fervour among one villagers before being exiled again by the authorities.
2) Issues faced by Muslims in white films (two parts)
How does muslim identity deal with current issues, especially against a background of Turkish society ?
How does it tackle leading current issues within an islamic context ?
social and cultural issues: the question of modernization (muslim identity and modernization)
The relationship between muslim identity and modernization is tackled in white cinema through the
westernization process in Turkey. This began in the mid-19th century with the Tanzimat measures
imposed by the sultan and became dominant with the establishment of the Turkish Republic in 1923. The effects of the westernization process on Turkish society are shown in most white films as an imposed acculturation process leading to a cultural identity crisis. This is marked by a loss of traditions, religious and moral values. As such, westernization is portrayed as a threat to the cultural and religious identity of Turkish people.
The notion of cultural duality in Turkish society due to the influence of the westernization movement is particularly prominent in the film You Are Not Alone ! (Yalniz Degilsiniz !), directed by Mesut Uccakan.
The film deals with the story of Serpil, a young medical student living with her family in an exaggerated western lifestyle. Under the influence of her grand-mother, a traditional muslim woman, and a devout medical student, she slowly realizes that she is alienated from her roots and feels an increasing stranger to her family and her materialistic world. Serpil's individual quest finally leads her to discover God. She manifests this outwardly by deciding to wear a headscarf and Islamic dress, provoking the violent rejection of her family. At the end of the film, she is sent to a mental hospital by her family as a "victim of religious reaction" (irtica kurbani).
current political issues: the question of secularism (muslim identity and secularism)
The relationship between muslim identity and secularism in Turkey is also tackled in white cinema
through the "headscarf dispute", which has been a controversial issue in Turkish politics since the 80's.
Facing a prohibition imposed by the secular laws, the so-called "headscarved students" (turbanli
ogrenciler) have consistently claimed the right to wear a headscarf at university through hunger strikes and sit-ins held in front of universities.
Shot in 1990, You Are Not Alone ! (Yalniz Degilsiniz !) was the first white film to deal with this
perennial political issue. In the film, the struggle by Serpil and other headscarved students is shown as a matter of individual freedom of thought and consciousness- in other words as a Human Rights issue - in a political context depicted as unjust and intolerant. From this perspective, the film has also been viewed as a spokesman of the headscarved students' struggle by supporting their claims.
Finally, the relation between muslim identity and secularism is treated in white cinema through politicalviolence. Inspired by the case of Uour Mumcu, a famous journalist at the socialist newspaper Cumhuriyet and a supporter of secularism, who was murdered in January 1993 under mysterious circumstances,
The lmmortal Carnation (Olumsuz Karanfiller), directed by Mesut Ucakan in 1995, tells the story of a young idealist muslim, acting in an agit-prop theater, who is falsely accused of murder and interroged by the security forces. Taking a stand on another contemporary and sensitive issue in Turkey - unsolved murders - the film posits the idea of the muslim community oppressed and used as scapegoats by the secular authorities.
C - Transnationality and white cinema
White cinema does not appear to have transnational links with parallel movements in other countries.
Even if some white productions are supported by transnational funding - mostly by businessmen from Germany or the Gulf States, they appear to articulate an islamic identity which is purely Turkish and set in an exclusively Turkish context. From this perspective, the situation of Turkish communities in Europe, especially in Germany, had been rather tackled by a few Milli Sinema productions in the 70's.
For example, Osman, My Son (Osman, Oglum) or My Country (Memleketim), both directed by Yucel Cakmakli, dealt with the cultural dilemmas (identity crisis, social alienation) faced by Turkish
immigrants in Germany. White cinema, by contrast, appeared to distance itself from such issues.
However, the idea of transnationality is raised in white cinema through the issue of the transnational muslim brotherhood, in particular against a background of international conflicts in which muslims are considered as the main victims. In this respect, the tragedy of Bosnian muslims in the Bosnian civil war and the conflict in Chechnya are handled in several white films. The Bleeding Wound (Kanayan Yara), by Yucel Cakmakli, deals with the Islamic independence movements against the background of the Bosnian civil war. Beyond Hope (Umidin Otesi), a short-feature by Mehmet Tanrisever, underlines the refugee issue by evoking the daily life of a young Bosnian girl in a Turkish village and the ties of solidarity which necessarily develop between her and the villagers. Finally, the idea of the islamic fraternity is also sketched in the opening of The Immortal Carnation (Olumsuz Karanfiller), by Mesut Ucakan, with the staging of a play by an agit-prop theater company which depicts the massacre of muslims in Chechnya by"communist" armed forces.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1 I would like to thank Lucy Wood for her inestimable help in preparing the English version of this paper.
2 See Burcak Evren, Yesilgam'la Yuz Yuze, Istanbul, A;~ Yayinlari, 1995, pp. 162-165.
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[1] Associate Professor in political science at the University of Bordeaux
• Consultant and expertise activities for the European Union Projects, etc
European Research Council & Research Executive Agency (European Commission), ANR, FMSH Paris | janvier 2014 – Aujourd’hui (4 ans 4 mois)
European Commission : Research Executive Agency, European Research Council.
Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR, France).
Fondation Maison Sciences de l'Homme Paris (France).
• Associate Professor in Political Science
Université de Bordeaux | février 2012 – Aujourd’hui (6 ans 3 mois)Région de Bordeaux, France
Director of Instruction :
Joint Head of Trilingual Master's Degree "Global Security and Analysis".
Head of Master's Degree "Trilingual Political Analyst".
Teachings :
- International Politics.
- Strategic and Geopolitical Issues in the Contemporary World.
- The Nuclear Issue : Proliferation and Non-Proliferation.
- Comparative Politics.
- Politics in Western Democracies.
- Turkish Politics.
- French Politics.
- European Politics (Sciences Po Bordeaux).
Mavi Boncuk |
HALEF
