FODULA فدوله
Source: https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/fodula
Osmanlılar’da çeşitli kesimlere dağıtılmak üzere pişirilen pide şeklinde yassı bir çeşit ekmek.
Müellif: FERİDUN EMECEN
Ramazan pidesine benzer biçimde ince, fazla mayalanmış özsüz hamurdan yapılan ve kolay kopma özelliğine sahip olan fodula (fodla) daha ziyade imaretlerde, saray mutfağında, İstanbul’daki diğer bazı saraylarda ve yeniçerilere ait fırınlarda pişirilir, bir kısım görevlilere maaşları ile birlikte sepet içinde istihkakına göre tayın olarak dağıtılırdı. Bu ekmeğin pişirilip dağıtılması için resmî bir teşkilât oluşturulmuştu. Fodula kelimesinin nereden geldiği ve bunun ne zamandan beri pişirilip dağıtıldığı bilinmemekle birlikte Evliya Çelebi’nin bu kelimeyi -eğer bir istinsah hatası değilse- “oruç açılan yiyecek” anlamına gelen “fatûre” (فطوره) şeklinde yazması fodula kelimesinin bununla ilgili olduğunu düşündürmektedir.
Sarayda fodula dağıtımının resmî bir özellik kazanması muhtemelen Fâtih Sultan Mehmed zamanında oldu. Nitekim Kavânîn-i Yeniçeriyân’a göre Fâtih döneminde av köpeklerinin yiyecek ihtiyaçlarını karşılamak için bir fodula fırını kurulmuştu. “Sekban fırını” da denen bu fırın Ayasofya civarında bulunuyordu. Ayrıca Evliya Çelebi, yeniçerilere ait fodulanın pişirildiği fırının Eski Odalar ile Acemi Oğlanları Odaları arasında yer aldığını belirtir. Bu fırınlarda, Yeniçeri Ocağı’nın bazı sınıflarına ve av köpeklerine dağıtılmak üzere fodula hazırlanırdı. Bunun yanında saray mutfağında da ekmekçiler saray halkı için bu cins ekmek çıkarırlardı. Fâtih dönemine ait saray mutfakları muhasebe defterlerinde fodula adı geçmemekle birlikte o devirde “nân-ı harcî” adı altında bu çeşit ekmeğin pişirildiği söylenebilir. 1490 senesine ait bir başka defterden de “nân-ı hâssa” ve “nân-ı harcî” adları altında iki ayrı cins ekmek hazırlandığı anlaşılmaktadır (BA, KK, nr. 7094). XVI. yüzyılın ilk yarısına ait bazı kayıtlara göre saray mutfağında simit fırını ve fodula fırını adıyla iki ayrı fırın vardı; ayrıca bir de sekban fırını (fırın-ı sekbânân-ı hâssa) bulunuyordu (BA, KK, nr. 7097, s. 52-53). 1554-1555 yıllarına ait bir muhasebe defterinde bir yıl zarfında saraydaki fodula fırınında harcanan un miktarı 9810 İstanbul kilesi (1 İstanbul kilesi ortalama 25 kg.) olarak gösterilmişti. Simit fırınında pişirilen ekmek ise “fodula-i simit” tabiriyle belirtilmişti. Söz konusu defterlerden anlaşıldığına göre fodula hem pişirilen ekmeğin hem de bu cins ekmek için ayrılan unun adıydı. Nitekim 1573 Mayısından 1574 Nisanına kadar mutfak masraflarını gösteren bir muhasebe defterinde fodula unu sarfiyatı 39.170 kile olup bundan fodula ekmeğinin yanı sıra çörek, börek ve baklava da yapılmıştı. XVII. yüzyıla ait olduğu tahmin edilen bir belgede fodula harc fırınına günde 130 kile un verildiği, bundan 90-110 dirhemlik 5500 çift fodula pişirildiği belirtilmektedir (TSMA, nr. E. 8718). Fodula unundan pişen ekmekler Enderun hizmetlileri, saray ağaları, paşalar, kazaskerler, defterdar, nişancı, hekimbaşı, şehzade hatunları, harem ağası, saray hastahanesi hizmetlileri, teberdarlar, kapıcılar, müteferrikalar ve mutfak görevlilerine verilmiş, divanın yapıldığı günlerde âdet üzere dışarıda bekleyen yeniçerilere, solaklara, serpiyadelere ve fakirlere de dağıtılmıştır. Saray dışında ayrıca Galata Sarayı ve İbrâhim Paşa Sarayı’nda da birer fodula fırını mevcut olup bu saraylarda görevli hizmetliler için ekmek pişirilmekteydi.![]()
Sekban fırınında hazırlanan fodulalar ise bazı yeniçeri sınıflarına ve av köpeklerine mûtat olarak tayın şeklinde dağıtılır ve bununla ilgili yıllık hesaplar tutulurdu. Kavânîn-i Yeniçeriyân’da bu fırının günlük un sarfiyatı 40 kile olarak gösterilmektedir (vr. 27b). 1498 Ağustosundan 1499 Aralığına kadar geçen bir yıl dört aylık sarfiyatı gösteren bir muhasebe defterine göre büyük veya tam (fodula-i büzürg), küçük veya yarım (fodula-i kûçek) olmak üzere 1.128.219 adet ekmek hazırlanmış, bunun 707.505’i İstanbul’da, 420.714’ü o sırada çıkılan İnebahtı Seferi sırasında dağıtılmıştı (Fodula Muhasebe Defteri, s. 46-48). Bu dönem zarfında harcanan un miktarı 697 müd (1 müd = 20 kile, toplam 13.940 kile veya yaklaşık 345 ton) olmuştu. 933 Ramazan - 934 Şâban (Haziran 1527 - Mayıs 1528) devresine ait bir başka yıllık muhasebede belirtildiğine göre ise bu süre zarfında fodula için sarfedilen fodula unu miktarı 958 müd 1 kile (yaklaşık 480 ton) olup bundan 1.018.464 ekmek yapılmış, görevlilere (fodula-i merdümân) ve av köpeklerine (fodula-i kilâb) dağıtılmıştı. Her iki muhasebe kayıtlarına göre bir kile undan büyük veya tam fodula olarak kırk, küçük veya yarım fodula olarak elli yedi - altmış ekmek çıkıyordu. 1527-1528 döneminde bu şekilde hazırlanan 198.720 büyük fodula serpiyade kul oğulları, cebeci oğulları, yeniçeri çuhası diken terzi sınıfına; 210.240 küçük fodula gündelik olarak yeniçeri ağasına (20 çift), yeniçeri kâtibine (10 çift), yeniçeri kethüdâsına (12 çift), sersekbana (20 çift), serbölüğe (6 çift), hassa sekbanlara (60 çift), zağarciyân-ı süvârîye (118 çift), sekbânân-ı süvârîye (180 çift), saksonculara (14 çift), fodula kâtibine (30 çift) ve fırın hademelerine (24 çift) dağıtılmıştı. Bundan başka avda ve savaşta kullanılan köpeklere 67.320 büyük, 532.184 küçük fodula verilmişti. Bu köpekler atmacacı ve çakırcı zağarları, tazı ve sason-ı hûkî (domuz avında kullanılan köpek) olarak sınıflandırılmış, bunların arasında 349 kılâde (tasma) hassa tazı ile şahinci tazılarına günlük olarak 698 çift ekmek tahsis edilmişti (BA, D.BŞM, nr. 11). Burada yer alan dağıtım listesi, ekmek adetlerindeki bazı farklılıklar hariç aynen 1498-1499 muhasebesi harcama dökümleri kısmında da bulunmaktadır.
Fodula fırınında XVII. yüzyılın başlarında sayıları elli-altmış arasında değişen acemi oğlanları çalışıyordu. Bunların mevcudu 1717’de 105’i bulmuştu. Fodula kâtibi denilen bir görevli, fırınlar için gerekli unun alınması vb. işlerle ilgileniyor, bunlarla alâkalı muhasebeyi tutuyor ve hesapları gözden geçiriyordu. Nitekim Kavânîn-i Yeniçeriyân’da onun vazifeleri fırına un ve odun vermek, parasını hazineden almak, yeniçeri yetimlerine günde yarım akçe veya üç ayda bir dokuz şinik un dağıtmak şeklinde belirtilmektedir (vr. 135b). XVII. yüzyıla ait olduğu anlaşılan bir vesikaya göre Yeniçeri Ocağı emektarlarından olan Anadolu Kâtibi Mehmed, o ana kadar senelik olarak fodula kâtiplerinin 20 yük (2 milyon) akçeden fazla masraf yaptıklarını, eğer kendisi bu göreve getirilirse 16 yük (1.600.000) akçe üzerine muhasebeyi bağlayabileceğini belirtmiş ve bu görev ona verilmişti (BA, A.RSK, nr. 5, evr. 28). Aralıklarla 1072’den (1661) 1083’e (1672) kadar fodula kâtipliği yapan Ali Efendi’nin muhasebe defterine göre ise bu süre zarfında sekban fırını için yapılan harcamalar 12.477.499 akçeyi bulmuştu (BA, MAD, nr. 15764). 1074 (1663-64) yılına ait bir başka kayıtta da sekban fırınının bir senelik masrafı 1.291.980 akçe olarak tesbit edilmiş, masrafları karşılamak üzere altı adet mukātaa geliri fırına ocaklık olarak (tahsis) bağlanmıştı.
Fodula kâtibi olabilmek için önce acemi kâtipliği yapmak, ardından ruûsa kaydedilip sipahiler zümresine katılmak gerekiyordu; sipahi olmadan fodula kâtipliğine tayin yapılmazdı (Kavânîn-i Yeniçeriyân, vr. 135b-136a). Bu memuriyet Yeniçeri Ocağı’nın önemli kademelerinden birini teşkil ediyor, teşrifatta özel bir yeri bulunuyor ve buradan genellikle yeniçeri kitâbeti görevine tayin yapılıyordu. Ayrıca fodula kâtibi yeniçeri ağasının başkanlığında toplanan divana da katılıyordu. Gündelik olarak fodula dağıtımını elinde bulunan deftere göre düzenleyene “küçük fodula kâtibi”, dağıtım sırasında fodulaları sayan memura “fodula sayıcısı” deniyordu. Yine fodula fırınının kantarcısı ve ambarcısı da vardı. Bu fırın, 1717 yılına ait bir mevâcib defterine göre ekmekçibaşının idaresinde fodula ekmeği üstadı, fodula unu elekçisi ve 105 fırın şâkirdinden ibaret bir kadroya sahipti (BA, KK, nr. 7224, vr. 22a-23b).
XVII. yüzyıl ortalarında sekban fırını yanında ihtiyacın artması, sayılarının kalabalıklaşması gibi sebeplerle Yeniçeri ocakları, sadrazam ve divan mensupları için dışarıdaki özel fırınlar da devreye sokulmuştu. Bu fırınlara gerekli ekmeklik un devlet tarafından dağıtılır ve sipariş üzere ekmek pişirilirdi. 1074 (1663-64) tarihli deftere göre bu şekilde çalışan fırın sayısı on beş kadardı ve bunlara bir aylık süre zarfında dağıtılan ekmeklik un miktarı 6000-7000 kileyi buluyordu (BA, MAD, nr. 15902).
XVII. yüzyıla ait Kavânîn-i Yeniçeriyân’daki listelerden fodula tevziatı yapılan yeniçeri gruplarında, dolayısıyla fodula sayılarında bazı değişiklikler olduğu anlaşılmaktadır. Meselâ bu listelerde XVI. yüzyıl başlarındaki kayıtlardan farklı olarak turnacıbaşı, başhaseki ve ortaları, ikinci haseki ve ortaları, üçüncü haseki ve ortaları, Orta Cami imamı, Anadolu, Rumeli ve İstanbul ağaları, ikinci deveciler ortası, cemaat ortaları, kethüdâ yeri, ağa imamı, zenberekçi gibi yeniçeri gruplarına fodula tahsis edilmişti. Ayrıca bu dönemde yeniçeri ağasının gündelik fodulası on, yeniçeri kâtibinin kırk, sekbanbaşının otuz beş çiftti. XVIII. yüzyılda ise harcî fodula fırınından tahsisat alanlar arasında başka görevlilerin adlarına da rastlanmaktadır. 1716 Mayısından 1717 Ekimine kadar 572 gün boyunca bu fırından tayın verilenler arasında kaymakam paşa, kaptanpaşa, mâzul saray ağaları, hekimbaşı, seferli ve hazine odaları, harem ağaları, teberdar, helvacı, kasaplar gibi görevliler yer almaktaydı (BA, D.BŞM. ETB, nr. 11792). Fodula ayrıca yeniçeri evlâdına da verilmekteydi. Bunlar “nân-hôrân” veya “fodula-hôrân” başlığı altında ulûfe defterlerinin sonuna kaydedilirler, maaş yanında birer çift fodula tayın da alırlardı. XVI. yüzyılda 600 kadar olan fodula-hôrân sayısı XVII. yüzyılda Ayn Ali’ye göre 1655’e ulaşmıştı.
İmaretlerde pişirilen fodulalar da gündelik olarak hak sahiplerine dağıtılıyordu. Fâtih Aşhânesi Tevzî‘nâmesi’ne göre Tetimme medreselerinde okuyan ihzârî sınıf talebeleri 100’er dirhemlik bir fodula alırlardı ve bunların mevcudu 600 kadardı. Ayrıca daha yüksek kısımlarda okuyan talebelere, müderrislere ve Tetimme bevvâblarına, devamı kontrol eden noktacılara her nöbette 200 dirhemlik fodula dağıtılırdı. Bu imarette XVI. yüzyılın ilk yarısında fodula için her gün 30 kile un harcanıyor ve beher kileden 110 fodula çıkartılıyor, böylece 100 dirhem ağırlığında 3300 adet fodula hazırlanıyordu. Bunun 2234’ü sayıları 957’yi bulan imaret talebesi, görevli ve hizmetlileriyle 160 kadar misafire, geri kalanı ise muhtemelen fakir ve muhtaç halka tevzi edilmişti. Fodula yapımı için Edirne’deki II. Bayezid İmareti’nde, bir kilesi 18 okka olan Edirne kilesi hesabıyla günde 20 kile, Edirne II. Murad İmareti’nde 12 kile, Edirne I. Bayezid İmareti’nde 6 kile, İstanbul’da Eyüp Türbesi İmareti’nde ise 2,5 kile un sarfiyatı yapılmıştı. Süleymaniye İmareti’nde, 1585-1586’da bir yıl boyunca 12.877 kile buğdayın 8405 kilesi ekmeklik un haline sokularak fodula hazırlanmasında kullanılmıştı. III. Selim’in sadrazamlarından İzzet Mehmed Paşa, imaretlerde pişirilecek fodulaların daha kaliteli olması için Kasım 1796’da yeni bir nizamnâme çıkararak hepsinin iyi undan yapılmasını sağladı (BA, HH, nr. 10771; Nûri, vr. 153a-154a). İmaret fodulaları çok defa vakıf mütevellisi tarafından yapılan anlaşma sonucu çarşı fırıncılarına havale edilerek pişirtilirdi. Gerek imaretlerde yapılan dağıtımda gerekse yeniçerilere verilen fodulaların tevziinde bazı usulsüzlükler de oluyordu. Bazı medrese talebeleri bir yolunu bularak birkaç imaretten fodula alıyor ve kendi ihtiyaçlarından fazlasını fırıncılara veya halka satıyorlardı. Bu zamanla çok yaygın bir alışveriş halini almıştı. Bazı yeniçeriler de aynı şekilde ele geçirdikleri fazla fodulaları satıyorlardı. Halk arasında kullanılan bir deyim olan “fodulacı” tabiri de muhtemelen bu usulsüz muameleden kaynaklanmıştır. Ayrıca zaman zaman yeniçerilerin fodulaların bozukluğu veya kalitesizliğinden şikâyet ettikleri, bazan da fazla fodula almak maksadıyla fırın işlerine karıştıkları oluyordu.
1826’da Yeniçeri Ocağı’nın ilgasından sonra fodula fırını kaldırıldı. Ancak sarayda bazı görevlilere fodula tipi ekmek çıktığı ve bu eski saray âdetinin XX. yüzyıl başlarına kadar devam ettiği bilinmektedir. V. Murad döneminde sarayın eski bir kalfası, Mâbeyin Müşiri Damad Nûri Paşa’nın fodula dağıtma âdetini kaldırıp yerine tayın verme teşebbüsüne karşı çıkarak vâlide sultanın da tesiriyle buna engel olmuştu. Ancak II. Meşrutiyet’ten sonra bu âdet terkedilmiştir. Ayrıca 24 Rebîülevvel 1329 (25 Mart 1911) tarihli bir kanunla, özel vakıflar dışında Evkaf Nezâreti’nce ilgililere dağıtılmakta olan fodulalar yerine bedellerinin ödenmesi ve bunların kayıtlarının silinmesi kararı alınmış; birinci nevi fodula için sekiz, ikinci nevi için altı, üçüncü nevi için beş, dördüncü nevi için dört Osmanlı lirasının bir defaya mahsus olmak üzere verileceği belirtilmiş; fakir, sakat kimseler ise bu kapsamın dışında tutulmuş, fakat onlara da fodula değil bedelinin verilmesi kararlaştırılmıştır (Düstur, III, 254-255). Bugün “fodulacı, fodlacı” tabirleri halk arasında hâlâ kullanılmakta, ayrıca İstanbul Fatih’te bu adı taşıyan bir de sokak (Fodla sokağı) bulunmaktadır. Yine halk arasında bazı fırınlar hâlâ fodla fırını şeklinde adlandırılmaktadır.
BİBLİYOGRAFYA
BA, MD, nr. 2, s. 193/1762, 195/1777.
BA, KK, nr. 3398, s. 52-65; nr. 7094, s. 11; nr. 7097, s. 52-53; nr. 7098, vr. 18a, 48b; nr. 7224, vr. 22a-23b.
BA, MAD, nr. 15764; nr. 15902.
BA, HH, nr. 10771.
BA, A.RSK (Dosya), nr. 5, Evr. 28.
BA, D.BŞM, nr. 11.
BA, D.BŞM. (Dosya), nr. 1, Evr. 34.
BA, D.BŞM. MTE (Matbah-ı Âmire), nr. 10509, s. 11.
BA, D.BŞM. ETB (Ekmekçibaşı), nr. 11771; nr. 11792.
BA, D.PYM (Piyade Mukabelesi), nr. 35113, 35117, 35121-35124, 35136-35137.
TSMA, nr. E. 8718.
Fâtih Aşhânesi Tevzî‘nâmesi (nşr. A. Süheyl Ünver), İstanbul 1935, s. 3-4.
Fodula Muhasebe Defteri, Muharrem 904 - Cumâdelûlâ 905 (nşr. Dündar Günday, Arşiv Belgelerinde Siyakat Yazısı Özellikleri ve Divan Rakamları içinde), Ankara 1974, s. 46-51, 56-61.
Kavânîn-i Yeniçeriyân (nşr. A. Y. Petrosyan), Moskva 1987, vr. 26b-28b, 135b-136a.
Kānunnâme, Âtıf Efendi Ktp., nr. 1734, vr. 284a-b.
Selânikî, Târih (İpşirli), I, 154, 292, 350; II, 728.
Ayn Ali, Risâle-i Vazîfehorân, s. 88.
Evliya Çelebi, Seyahatnâme, I, 536-537.
Nûri, Târih, İÜ Ktp., TY, nr. 5996, vr. 153a-154a.
M. Galib, Sâdullah Paşa yahut Mezardan Nidâ, İstanbul 1909, s. 42-43.
Atâ Bey, Târih, I, 297.
Uzunçarşılı, Kapukulu Ocakları, I, 57, 162, 257, 260-261, 321, 397, 518.
a.mlf., Saray Teşkilâtı, s. 459.
Sertoğlu, Tarih Lügatı, s. 114-115.
“Duâgû Fodulalarının Sûret-i İmhâsı Hakkında Kanun”, Düstur, İkinci tertip, İstanbul 1330, III, 254-255.
Ö. Lûtfi Barkan, “Osmanlı İmparatorluğunda İmaret Sitelerinin Kuruluş ve İşleyiş Tarzına Ait Araştırmalar”, İFM, XXIII/1-2 (1963), s. 272-274, 280, 283.
a.mlf., “Edirne ve Civarındaki Bazı İmâret Tesislerinin Yıllık Muhasebe Bilânçoları”, TTK Belgeler, II/2 (1965), s. 244-246.
a.mlf., “İstanbul Saraylarına Ait Muhasebe Defterleri”, a.e., IX/13 (1979), s. 34, 72, 80, 105, 128, 144, 174.
a.mlf., “Süleymaniye Cami ve İmareti Tesîslerine Âit Yıllık Bir Muhasebe Bilânçosu 993/994 (1585-1586)”, VD, IX (1971), s. 120, 155.
Pakalın, I, 634.
R. Ekrem Koçu, “Fodla, Fodula”, İst.A, XI, 5813.
BAKERIES AND BREAD PRODUCTION IN ISTANBUL
Mehmet Demirtaş
Baking bread in the furnace (İntizami)
Among the many bakeries in operation during Istanbul’s Ottoman era were those belonging to the palace, the army, imaret (charity) bakeries, embassy bakeries, and public bakeries.
Physically speaking, palace bakeries, or ovens, were a part of the Matbah-i Amire (Ottoman palace kitchen). The Matbah-i Amire was responsible for the proper functioning of ovens throughout the palace. On the other hand, the kilercibaşı (chief pantryman) of the Enderun (inner palace) was responsible for the appointment and dismissal of working personnel. Two kilercibaşıs worked in the palace: the Enderun kilercibaşı and the Birun (outer palace) kilercibaşı; the latter of which was the director of the Kilar-i Amire (palace pantry). The Enderun kilercibaşı was the superintendent of various personnel in the palace, such as the servants of the private and exterior ovens, bread makers and simit (Turkish bagel) makers, who worked in palace ovens and kitchens; he was also responsible for the appointment and dismissal of the same.1
The palace kitchen provided bread for various parts of the palace, including the Helvahane, (where halvah and other desserts were produced), the Harem-i Hümayun, (imperial harem), the Matbah-i Has (where the sultan’s food was produced), the Rikab-i Humayun (attendants of the sultan), and for the sultan, his family, and government officials. Bread was not distributed to these areas and people directly from the oven; it first had to enter the kitchen. An assortment of bread was produced in palace ovens, including both has and harci bread.2
In Istanbul there were bakeries that produced fodla (a large, flat, soft Ottoman bread) only for the military corps. The first fodla oven -also known as a sekban (military) oven- was established during the reign of Sultan Mehmed II to provide food for hunting dogs. Although these ovens originally were established to make fodla for the dogs fed by the sekban,3 the zağarcı (a section of the Ottoman army), and the haseki (wives of Ottoman sultans), they later became transformed into bakeries that produced bread for the military corps. The hierarchical structure in the fodla bakery was similar to that of the palace bakery. There were bakers, dough makers, sievers and apprentices; together, these workers were known as the ekmekçi bölüğü (bakers’ company).4
During the Ottoman era, many charitable foundations were established all over the country to provide food and accommodation for those in need. Upon the conquest of Constantinople, many new foundations were established in both the city and other parts of the country. One of the most important charitable institutions was the imaret, and bakeries producing fodla bread were established in order to provide the imaret with food.5
Occasionally, people were given bread from imaret ovens. When there was a scarcity of bread in the market, imaret ovens took the necessary precautions to meet the increased demands for bread from the public. Bread was produced daily in imaret ovens, and all of the bread produced in these bakeries was made from pure wheat; barley was rarely used in bread production, and instead being given to horses.
In the Ottoman capital, embassy bakeries were established to meet the demands of foreign embassies. These were mostly located around Galata, and often they produced baguettes of great quality. Foreign bakers produced baguettes for the consumption of rich customers. Because the baguette bakeries worked for foreign ambassadors for the most part, the government did not apply fixed prices to their products.6
Private bakeries (for public consumption) in Istanbul fell into two groups in terms of the type of bread they produced. These can be divided into has (pure) bread bakeries and harci bakeries. In terms of quality, has bread was better than harci bread. The reason for this was that white flour was used to produce this type of bread. The quantity of has bakeries was less than that of harci bakeries. The reason for this was the high price of has bread, and the consequent low demand. Though the prices of these two breads were equal, has bread was often lighter in weight. Has bakeries would occasionally make bread that weighed 30-40 dirhams (a dirham was equal to 3.2 grams) less than the regulation, thus breaking the law.7 At times, the government would decide on a fixed price without discriminating between has and harci bread.8 This practice was an attempt to eliminate confusion resulting from weight discrepancies.
Bread made in harci bakeries was typically of lower quality. Since its base weight tended to be higher, people with low incomes often consumed it; hence, it was in greater demand. For this reason there were bakeries all throughout Istanbul that produced harci bread. Apart from bread ovens, there were bakeries in Istanbul that produced other baked goods such as simit and börek.9
Bakeries did not typically produce baked goods outside their product range. It was forbidden, for example, for a börek-producing bakery to produce bread, just as it was for a bread-producing bakery to produce börek. Regulations involving bakeries stipulated this condition in concise wording. The only way to evade this was to breach the regulations; bakeries would complain about such infringements to try to prevent such practices.
Bread production permits were only granted to ovens that produced bread. Occasionally, however, börek makers would break the rules and produce bread in order to increase their profits. In order to prevent such competition which was achieved by evading the law, certain bakeries appealed to the divan (state council). It was also common for bread makers to try and solve such disputes among themselves. Even though it was forbidden for baguette bakeries to produce regular bread, it was common for them to do so. Faced with breaches of these regulations, the Istanbul kadılık (qadi’s office) often intervened in order to put an end to such infringements.10
Bakeries typically sold their products in special areas assigned to them. In addition to selling bread and other bakery products directly from their bakeries, products could only be sold via the iskemleciler (bread sellers) who were affiliated with a certain oven; the number of these points was set out by law. An iskemle could be a shop (grocery store, kebab restaurant, etc.) or a stall. The iskemleci took bread and other products from the bakeries to which they were affiliated. It was forbidden for them to see anywhere but at their iskemle. Peddlers, who sold bread from trays, could only sell bread that came from the bakery for which they worked.11
In the Ottoman State price-fixing was applied to all staple foods, beginning with bread. In accordance with this, the government set an official price for bread and required that all commercial exchanges be carried out in accordance with this price. Except for products that fluctuated due to seasonal availability, the price of food did not often change. One of the products whose price did change depending on the season, however, was bread. Bread prices were fixed after initial harvests, and were changed later in the year, if necessary.12
Price-fixing for bread was also often subjected to weight regulations when economic changes occurred. Under normal circumstances, the price of bread was one akçe. In times of poverty or economic depression, though, the same product was sold for three-times its normal price. Of the products that were subjected to price-fixing, bread had the lower profit margin. Because it was a staple food, the government lowered the price, and thus the profit margin, of bread. This rate was generally 10%.13
Bakeries were generally required to follow strict regulations concerning the quality, weight and price of bread. Depending on certain regulations, certain products were given permission to be produced or were forbidden; these could only be produced at certain qualities. Muhtesib (officer responsible for public order) and koloğlans (patrols) frequently controlled these ovens in order to prevent any problems or setbacks. Consequently, ovens were obliged to maintain complete compliance with regulations concerning both quality and prices. There were explicit provisions relating to the quality of bread recorded in the ihtisab (public regulation) codes. According to these, it was especially important that the flour was well sifted and that the bread was sufficiently baked. It was also compulsory that dough for börek be half the amount of bread dough and the right amount of oil be added to the bread.14 In order to ensure that bakeries produced bread which complied with these regulations, the government distributed samples of correctly produced bread, and often required bakeries to bake bread that matched this standard. This was especially true during Ramadan, and orders were sent to officials telling them to ensure that government regulations were obeyed.15 In every era of the Ottoman capital, officials applied regulations on both the quality and the price of bread.16
FOOTNOTES
1 Arif Bilgin, Osmanlı Saray Mutfağı, Istanbul : Kitabevi, 2004, pp. 30, 64-65; İsmail Hakkı Uzunçarşılı, Osmanlı Devletinin Saray Teşkilatı, Ankara : Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1988, pp. 459-460; T. Talbot Rice, Bizans’ta Günlük Yaşam: Bizans’ın Mücevheri Konstantinopolis, tr. Bilgi Altınok, Istanbul: Özne Yayınları 2002 p. 26.
2 See: Mehmet Demirtaş, Osmanlıda Fırıncılık: XVII. Yüzyıl, Istanbul : Kitap Yayınevi, 2008, pp. 49-50.
3 Midhad Sertoğlu, Osmanlı Tarih Lugatı, Istanbul : Enderun Kitabevi, 1986, pp. 114-115.
4 BOA, AE, I. Ahmed, no. 175.
5 Suraiya Faroqhi, Osmanlıda Kentler ve Kentliler, tr. Neyyir Kalaycıoğlu, Istanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları, 2000, vol. 3, p. 264.
6 S. Bozis, İstanbul Lezzeti: İstanbul Rumlarının Mutfak Kültürü, tr. F. Benlisoy and S. Benlisoy, Istanbul: Türkiye Ekonomik ve Toplumsal Tarih Vakfı, 2000, p. 5.
7 BOA, MD, nr. 106, s. 37, Hüküm 85 (Evâil-i N 1106/Nisan 1695).
8 Istanbul Mufti Office’s Archives, Galata Kadılığı, no. 73.
9 Ahmed Refik Altınay, Eski İstanbul, Istanbul: Kanaat Kütüphanesi, 1931, p. 85; Istanbul Metropolitan Council, Atatürk Library, Muallim Cevdet, no. B-2, f. 16a. For information on simit and börek bakeries, see: Suraiya Faroqhi, Osmanlı Kültür ve Gündelik Yaşam, tr. Elif Kılıç, Istanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları, 1997, p. 225; BOA, MAD, no. 514, p. 26, 27 (20 M 1093/29 January 1682); “Börekçiler”, DBİst.A, II, 321.
10 BOA, MD, no. 114, p. 205; no. 73, Hüküm 206, 1003-1594-1595; no. 114-A, p. 193.
11 BOA, C.BLD, nr. 722 (1190/1776-1777).
12 Salih Aynural, İstanbul Değirmenleri ve Fırınları, Zahire Ticareti (1740-1840), Istanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları, 2000, p.130; Ahmet Kal’a, İstanbul Esnaf Tarihi-I, Istanbul : İstanbul Büyükşehir Belediyesi Kültür İşleri Daire Başkanlığı İstanbul Araştırmaları Merkezi, 1997, p. 30, 31, Hüküm nr. 884; Mübahat Kütükoğlu, “Osmanlı İktisadi Yapısı”, Osmanlı Devleti Tarihi, edi. Ekmeleddin İhsanoğlu, Istanbul: Feza Gazetecilik, 1999, vol. 2, p. 562.
13 Mehmet Genç, Osmanlı İmparatorluğunda Devlet ve Ekonomi, Istanbul: Ötüken Neşriyat, 2000, p. 298.
14 Osman Nuri Ergin, Mecelle-i Umur-ı Belediye, Istanbul : İstanbul Büyükşehir Belediyesi Kültür İşleri Daire Başkanlığı, 1995, vol. 1, p. 387. For more on this matter, see: Hüsnü Kınaylı, “Esnaf, İstanbul Esnafı”, İst.A, X, 5323; Robert Mantran, 17. Yüzyılın İkinci Yarısında İstanbul: Kurumsal, İktisadi, Toplumsal Tarih Denemesi, tr. Mehmet Ali Kılıçbay and Enver Özcan, Ankara: V Yayınları, t.y., vol. 1, pp. 315-316.
15 TSMA, no. E 2179-1.
16 For information on the punishments given to tradesmen: Mehmet Demirtaş, Osmanlı Esnafında Suç ve Ceza İstanbul Örneği (H 1100-1200/M 1688-1768), Ankara : Birleşik, 2010.
from: http://www.turkish-cuisine.org/
Grains and Breads
Grains
Tahıl
Tahıl is the name given in Turkish to the dried seeds of plants in the grass family (Poaceae), which eaten either whole or ground into flour. The word hububat is also used. Grown the world over and with a history almost as old as humanity itself, they may be consumed in a variety of ways but the thing they have in common is the making of bread. Though many different grains are used to make bread, the most commonly used is wheat.
Across the vast Turkic region from Central Asia to the Mediterranean basin, the most used grains are wheat and barley, mostly used in the form of flour. Bread is an indispensable part of the Turkish table; it is not only a staple source of nutrition but has also become a central element of Turkish culture. In Turkey, bread is sacred. This sacredness comes from the fact that not only is it a natural product, but also the result of great effort. Used synonymously with both “food” and “work,” bread has a value distinct from all other foods.
Wheat
Buğday
A plant in the grass family, which has been developed the world over. It and corn are the second most planted grains in the world. In Turkish cuisine it is used ground into flour for use in such products as börek, çörek, bazlama, kete, simit. There is another very common food,kavurga, in which the wheat is washed and then dry-roasted and eaten plain. Wheat is grown throughout Turkey.
Another very important wheat product is bulgur. After the wheat is washed and boiled, it is dried and beaten in a large mortar and pestle. It is used chiefly as pilaf as well as made into various köfte. Its use varies according to its grade, with large grades used more in pilaf, and the finer ones used in köfte.
In addition, irmik (semolina), one of the most important additives in Turkish cooking, is made from wheat.Semolina is a very special ingredient, used in the making of certain halvahs, in many breads, certain köftes and sweets. It also holds an important place due to its high nutritive value.
Oats
Yulaf
A plant of the grass family, grown for its starchy seeds. As dough made from oat flour does not rise, it cannot be made into bread, however oat flour is mixed with other bread flours to add a different flavor. Oats are used more in the making of mush or in gözleme.
Barley
Arpa
Used very frequently in Turkish cooking, barley closely resembles wheat in its structure. Barley flour is used to make bread, soups and other baked goods.
Millet
Darı
Another plant in the grass family with edible seeds is millet. Some types are ground and mixed with milk or ayran and made into dough, or used in the making of breads. Millet is also the raw material for boza, a fermented drink found throughout the Turkic world. It is chiefly cultivated in the Mediterranean reagion.
Corn
Mısır
Corn is a plant which can be cultivated in relatively wet or humid regions such as the Black Sea. It is also valuable for its high nutritive value and unsaturated fats. The grain may be ground into flour for breads and çörek, or used to coat fish before frying, and cracked in pilafs or soups. It may also be eaten on the cob, either boiled or roasted.
Rye
Çavdar
This grain is generally ground into flour and mixed with wheat flours for bread.
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Traditional Breads in Turkish Cuisine
Prof. Dr. Mine Arlı, Gazi University, Faculty of Vocational Education.
Nermin Işık, Selçuk University, Faculty of Vocational Education.
Introduction
Bread is a foodstuff generally made by combining a grain flour with water and salt, either leavened or unleavened, then shaped and cooked. Though wheat flour is most commonly used, bread is made from such grains as corn and rye as well. Bread is generally eaten along with other foods. When bread is eaten without an accompanying dish, it is called yavan ekmek(“drab/boring/insipid bread”).
The Turkish word for bread, ekmek, pronounced etmek in old Turkish, as well as ötmek in some regions. In some Ottoman Turkish sources, it was written as “etmek” but pronounced as “ekmek.” It appears in the Divan-ı Lügat-it Türk as “etmek” (1,2).
The Turks made a great variety of bread from the wheat they mill, and these products had an equal variety of names, sometimes based on the manner of cooking, and other times based on their appearance. Traditional bread was mostly baked at home in an oven called a tinürü(mod. Turkish: tandır). It is recorded that for feast days, differently flavored breads were created with the addition of butter, spices and fragrant herbs. Some of these flavoring agents include salt, cumin, nigella seed, fennel, saffron, sesame, mustard and watermelon seeds. Some areas had breads that had become locally famous. For example, it is stated that the King sent Karkamış bread to Lasmah-Addu, along with wine and various other gifts. As there were vineyards in this region, it is thought that this bread could have been a raisin bread. During later years, paper-thin yufka bread made its appearance with the nomadic people of Asia. The long keeping properties of yufka bread was important for the Turks in their nomadic lifestyle. It is written that eight to ten of these thin yufkas were stacked and then rolled. During the summer it was preferred to other breads because of its long lasting properties.
A similar bread to yufka is lavaş. Thin pide was known as yufka in both Azerbaijani and Çağatay Turkish. In addition to these breads, there are types of breads made with corn, barley, millet and wheat flour, leavened and unleavened, with and without oil, thin and thick, sweet and unsweetened, and cooked on a convex griddle called a saç. Another type, known as sinçü, resembled modern-day pide. A type of cookie called çukmin comprised yet another type of bread. As many different names as there were, we must accept that there were some that did not resemble breads, such as çörek, pide, etc. It is recorded that Turks in the 11th century were making various çöreks which resemble those made today. Among the various types of çörek was kömeç (<kömmek, mod. Turkish gömmek, “to bury”) which was made by burying the dough in hot coals, and which survives today by the names gömeç-gömbe-kömbe and göbe-göbü.
In addition to yufka, bazlamaç is also thought to have been made in the Selçuk period. Çöreks known as nokul-lokul made with oily leavened dough filled with walnuts, hazelnuts, sesame, sometimes ground meat and sometimes raisins, both sweet and savory, show up among the foods of the Selçuk period. These are all thought to have come to Anatolia along with the Turkmen (1-3).
Bread has an extremely important place in Turkish cuisine; it is the basic staple. Whatever type of bread it may be, people think of how to earn their daily bread, so much so that the term ekmek parası is applied to money earned, or the recompense for one’s labor. This is a clear indication of bread’s importance in daily life.
A cheap source of energy, bread is important in the nutrition of the poor. Bread is not only satisfying, it provides a significant portion of people’s protein requirements (4).
Today, in addition to traditional types of bread, we have many types made with modern means. The additives used in the making of these breads increase their nutritive value and quality (5-6).
The breads made on the commercial market today are baked with Type 2, in other words 66-72 strength flour, while regional breads made at home use Type 3 (73-76), Type 4 (77-81), Type 5 (81-90) and Type 6 (90+) strength flours.
The replacement of single-family homes with gardens by apartments has limited the making of traditional breads. The various traditional breads are today made mostly in rural areas (7).
Bread has an essential place in traditional Turkish cooking. The goal of this article is to gather together information on bread from a variety of different sources. Less attention is given to pide, as well as to products with lower water content or items such as çörek, made with the addition of ingredients other than flour, water, salt and leavening.
Breads can be examined in two main groups, leavened and unleavened.
Leavened Breads
Leavened breads are those which are made from doughs composed of flour, water, salt and yeast, kneaded, left to rise, shaped and cooked by various means.
Bazlama (Bazlamaç, Bezdirme, Bezirme)
Bazlama is common in Anatolia, especially in Central Anatolia. The dough is rolled out into a circle from 20-25 cm wide and 1 cm thick and cooked on a sac or in a tandır. In some regions such as Niğde and Elazığ, it is rolled out very thin, to 2-3 mm. The baked thickness of bazlama ranges from 1.5-2 cm, and its color varies from brown to white according to the strength of the flour (7,8). In Denizli, bazlama is made with a combination of wheat and corn flours (9).
In some areas, bazlama is sprinkled with sesame (7, 10, 11). In Eskişehir, bazlama is known astapıl, in Aydın as bezdirme, and in Isparta and Denizli as bazdırma. (1, 12).
Darı (Millet) Bazlama
The dough is made from wheat, corn and millet flour, salt, water and sourdough starter. The raised dough is divided into pieces, rolled to 1-1.5 cm thick and baked on a sac (7).
Ev Ekmeği (Homemade Bread)
Called “gastra” in Antalya, this is a traditional type of bread made at home and cooked in ovens (12).
Ev ekmeği is also made by immigrants from the Balkans living in Suşehri near Sivas. The dough for this type of bread is softer than that for normal loaf bread. The dough is placed in a clay pot known as a çerepene. This is covered with a sac filled with coals, the heat from which bakes the bread. The sac is lifted from time to time to check the progress. If it is too hot, the top of the bread is covered with paper, and it is wrapped in order to soften (1, 13).
Ebeleme
This is made by dividing a leavened dough into pieces and rolling them out like yufka, then cooking on a sac. After cooking, both sides are oiled. This bread is made in the Ankara region (7).
Fodla
This is made from high-strength (whole-wheat) flour. It is thinner than pide and rectangular in shape. It is recorded that the Soup Kitchen of the Fatih Mosque Complex handed out fodla with food for the poor. The word fodla is Arabic in origin (1, 14).
Gilik
This is a wide circular flat bread with a hole in the middle. Gilik is made for two different purposes. One is memmecim gilik, the other is kirk gilik.
Memmecim gilik are bread rings up to 7 cm in diameter. They are sold strung, up to 20 at a time, in markets set up during Ramadan and the Feast of the Sacrifice.
Kırk gilik is made and distributed on the fortieth day after a death of a family member (kırk = forty). They are sprinkled with nigella. Gilik is made in the Sivas region (15). Around Erzincan, the word “gilik” refers to small breads cooked on a sac (1).
Gömeç
The raised dough is divided into pieces of the desired sized. These are baked in the oven on a sac supported on legs. They are made in the region of Cihanbeyli (7).
Gübaye
Made of a leavened dough prepared with wheat, corn and barley flours, and stuck to the sides of a tandır to bake. If they are to be kept for long periods, they are left longer in the tandır to dry completely. This type of bread is moistened before eating (10).
Halka
Baked in the region of Niğde. The dough is rolled out into a thick rope by hand, made into a U shape and baked in the oven. It is overbaked, and then allowed to dry for two days, after which it is stored hung over a rope (1, 16).
Kakala
This is made by dividing the dough in to round pieces and cooking them in a deep stone called a bileki. They are made in Artvin (7).
Kalın
Pieces of dough approximately 500 grams in weigh are rolled out to 2 cm thick and baked in a tandır. Made in Arpaçay, Kars region (7).
Lavaş (Lavaj Bread)
This is a bread made by baking yufka from leavened dough on the walls of a hot tandır. In the Sivas region it is baked in an oven. Lavaş bread is generally made in the regions of Erzurum, Kars, Muş, Konya (Yunak) and Erzincan.
After lavaş is baked, it is generally an ellipse 30-40 cm in length, 15-20 cm wide, and 1-1.5 cm thick, however it made sometimes be made in different sizes (7, 17, 18). In the region of Elazığ, it is known as tandır bread (19).
Mayalı (Mayalı Sepe)
A bread made by rollıng leavened dough into a circle 1 cm thick and 10-15 cm wide, and cooking on a sac (7). In some regions it is baked in the oven, and in others, such as Niğde, Karaman and Sivas, it is baked on a sac placed over the tandır. In Niğde it is called mayalı sepe (“leavened sepe”) (16). A bread made in the same way but a bit larger in the Sivas region is called ekşili ekmek (sour bread) (7). It is made in the regions of Elazığ, Hatay (Kırıkhan), Gaziantep (Islahiye), Mardin (Kızıltepe), Konya (Çumra-Ereğli-Karaman), Niğde and Aksaray.
Pıt-Pıt
The raised dough is made into rounds of any sized desired, allowed to rise again and baked in the oven. This type of bread is made in Osmancik, Çorum province (7, 11).
Pobuc
Made by shaping the dough into thick discs 15-20 cm wide, and sticking to the walls of the tandır. Made in Sivas-Gemerek (7).
Sac Ekmeği
Known in Urfa (Hilfan) as açık ekmek (“open bread”), this bread is made by rolling raised dough into an ellipse or circle 2-3 mm thick and baking on a sac. The finished thickness is 3-4 mm, and can be thicker (7).
In the Sivas region, the raised dough is opened by hand or with an oklava to 15-20 cm wide and 1 cm thick, and baked on a sac. It is eaten fresh or a few days old (15).
Sac Arası Ekmeği (İki Sac Arası)
This bread, the names of which mean “Between the Sac Bread” or “Between Two Sac’s,” is also called kapama (closing), sac kapama or kastra. It is made like sac bread but rolled a bit thick. The prepared dough is put onto a hot sac, and this is covered with another sac covered in embers to cook.
This bread is made in regions including Akşehir (Gözpınar), Sivas (Bedirli), Kayseri (Tomarza), Niğde (Höyük-Bor) and Manisa (7).
Somun
Meaning “loaf,” somun is made everywhere and familiar to everyone. It is long with small ends and larger in the middle. The raised dough is rolled out into pieces 2-3 cm thick. In some areas, boiled mashed potatoes are added to the dough. It is cooked at home and in neighborhood bakeries (1, 7).
The baked bread is 5-6 cm thick and 15-20 cm in length. Its color is variable according to the flour used. That made at home is generally made with whole wheat flour, so it is dark in color. Somun is usually made to be used in 2-3 days. The fırın ekmeği cooked in cities including Antalya, Burdur, Isparta and Mersin is a type of somun bread (12).
In Suşehri, somun bread is known as fırın ekmeği (“oven bread”) or muhacir ekmeği(“immigrant bread”). It was stated that the immigrants (from the Balkans) to the region also added potato water or whey to the dough to give it a pleasing flavor and color (13).
The small version of somun bread is called göbüt (1). In the Sivas region, small somuns are known as somuncuk (dimimutive of somun) (15).
Tandır Bread
The tandır can be defined as a type of oven built by digging a hole in the ground. Tandır bread is made in the type of tandır called gömme tandır (“buried tandır”). It is made of clay with a wide bottom, narrowing towards the mouth at the top, like a large clay vase. It is buried in the garden or yards of houses. There is a hole at the bottom with a chimney leading to the surface, called a kulle. (1, 2, 16).
A fire is lit on the floor of the tandır, which heats its walls. If the dough adheres to the walls of the tandır without falling off, the tandır is said to be tavında, or “tempered, at its prime.” Breads baked in the tanır include lavaş, çörek and others. (7).
In some areas another type of tandır is used, which is above ground, built like a stove out of large stones, its inner and outer surfaces covered with mud. On such tandırs, the breads are baked on a sac placed over its hole (16, 20). They are generally used to make yufka, bazlama, çörek etc.
For tandır bread, the raised dough is rolled into rounds 2-3 cm thick, sometimes with a hole in the center. In some areas it is rolled to 2-3 mm like yufka (19). The side of the dough which will contact the tandır is moistened and stuck to the hot wall (7, 16, 21). The baked bread is removed with a tool called the eğiş. The finished bread is 4-5 cm thick and 15-20 cm wide, either a circle or a ring. The yufka type is 2-3 mm thick (7).
Tandır bread is made in the regions of Erzurum, Erzincan, Elazığ, Diyarbakır, Ağrı, Kayseri, Hatay, Eskişehir, Mardin, Malatya, Sivas, Siirt, Yozgat, Urfa (7) and Konya (21). In the Niğde region it is known as tandır çöreği (16).
Taşlı Fırın Ekmeği - Pebble-Baked Bread
This is made from a standard leavened dough which is left to rise twice and then flattened out by hand. The real difference is in its baking.
The oven is lit and the floor is covered with pebbles, which become heated as well. The ready loaves are baked directly on the pebbles. When it is done, it is removed with the pebbles, which are then removed from the bread.
The finished bread is round, 3 cm thick and 12-15 cm wide. This type of bread is made in the area of Darende, Malatya province (7).
Tepsi Ekmeği - Pan Bread
The raised dough is oven-baked in oiled broad trays or square pans. This bread is made by the descendants of Balkan immigrants living in the Niğde region (16).
In the Aegean region, tepsi bread is known as “oven bread” or “home bread.” The homemade yeasted dough is put into pans or trays and either baked at home or taken to a commercial bakery. In Aydın, a started made from chickpeas is reportedly used (9).
Yuvarlak
Literally meaning “round,” this bread is made from a leavened dough which is shaped into 10 x 20 cm ovals, arranged in a pan and sprinkled with sesame and poppy seed. It is taken to a commercial oven in the evening and cooks in a warm oven until dawn. It is then strung on a string with a packing needle. It is moistened when it is to be eaten. Yuvarlak is made in Isparta (12).
Unleavened Breads
Unleavened breads are made with various flours with the addition of water and salt, and either shaped with the hands or rolled out with a long thin rolling pin called an oklava (7, 8).
Bazlama
Baked on a sac. In some areas, it is made a bit thicker and smaller than yufka (1, 22)
The tablama made in Adıyaman, Trabzon and Malatya is a type of bazlama. In Zonguldak and Çankırı, unleavened bazlama is known as göbü, in Izmir as bezdirme, and in Manisa aspezdirme (9). It is reported that in Antalya, a millet flour bazlama is made (12).
Fetil
This is a type of bread that must be eaten fresh, made smaller and thicker than yufka and cooked on a sac. If made with whole wheat flour, it is more flavorful and nutritious. It is made in the Sivas and Elazığ regions (1, 15).
Güdül
This is made from either wheat or corn flour and cooked either on a sac or in a tandır. It is known in the regions of Samsun, Sivas, Amasya and Tokat (1).
Gartalaş
Made like yufka bread from an unleavened dough, it is baked on a sac. This bread is made in the regions of Bursa, Bolu and Eskişehir (1).
Kömeç (Kömme, Kömbe)
In Trabzon and Zonguldak, unleavened bread cooked in coals is called kömeç (1). In the Zonguldak region, it is reportedly made without salt (23).
In Balıkesir there is a type of bread known as kömme. This is a type of bread which is buried in the embers of a dying fire to bake. It can be both leavened and unleavened (24).
Kömme-Gömbe has been described as “a type of ember-baked pide made in many parts of Anatolia, either leavened or unleavened, and with or without oil.” In the area around Sinop, kömbe, kete and bazlama are called sac ketesi (1).
In Sivas, kömbe refers to a very oily bread made with no leavening. The dough is spread in a baking pan and designs are made with the fingers or with a spoon. It is cooked by covering with a sac onto which coals are heaped (15).
Corn Bread
Corn breads are generally made in the Black Sea region, from a dough made of corn meal, flour and water. They are usually unleavened. In some areas, such as Sinop-Türkeli, Trabzon-Arsin and Kastamonu-İnebolu, they are leavened. Some versions are brushed with beaten egg.
Corn breads can be baked both on a sac or in a baking pan in the oven. Those baked in the oven must be 2-3 cm thick. Those baked on the sac are circular, 1-1.5 cm thick and 15-20 cm wide. Those baked in a greased pan or frying pan are baked in a normal oven or a kuzine – a wood heating stove with a wide top for cooking as well as an oven compartment.
Corn bread takes the shape of the pan in which it is cooked, and is naturally yellow in color. As it goes stale very quickly, it is made fresh each day (7).
In Ordu, corn bread is called “toraman” (1).
In Sinop, corn bread is made in a variety of ways. One way is to add the corn meal and to boiling water and stir, then pour this batter into a 3-4 cm deep pan and cook in a hot oven till browned (25).
In the Artvin region, an unleavened corn bread called cadi is baked in a stone pan which is set in clay, called a bileki (7).
Ter Ekmeği
This bread resembles yufka; it is rolled out the same way, has no oil and is baked on a sac. It is made when there are meat and simmered dishes, and eaten rolled around egg and onions. There is also a dish called bandırma which is made from ter ekmeği. For this dish, ter ekmeği is cut into square pieces. These are topped with chopped walnuts, the edges are closed, they are arranged in a pan and baked with turkey broth (7).
Yufka
Commonly made throughout Anatolia, yufka is one of the most important breads of Turkish cuisine. In the Türkmen language, the word yufka means anything thin (1). In Tekirdağ-Malkara, it is known as şebit-sepit-şipit; in Tokat-Artova it is called işkefe, and in the Tokat, Eskişehir and Ankara regions, gardalaç. It may be made with wheat flour or corn meal (Bolu, Kastamonu, Sivas) (1). In Denizli, the word şipit refers to a thicker type of yufka.
To make yufka, unleavened dough is divided into pieces, which are rolled with an oklava to 1-2 mm thick and 50-100 cm wide, and baked on a hot sac.
The cooked yufka are 50-100 cm in diameter and 1mm thick, and can be various colors according to the grade of flour.
In Ankara and Kırıkkale, various ingredients are mixed with the dough including citric acid, ayran, milk or sour plum leather. It is reported that in Kırklareli egg is added to the dough (7). In Denizli there is a version with poppy seeds kneaded into the dough (9).
Yufka has one of the longest shelf lives of any bread, and can be stored for up to six months. If it is intended for long storage, it must be dried on the sac (7).
In the Niğde region, the making of yufka is an important part of preparation for winter. Families hold work parties (imece) with their neighbors to make bread to last six to nine months. In the area, such bread is known as kış ekmeği, or “winter bread.” These must be moistened before eating (16, 20). If it is for immediate consumption, it is made in smaller amounts. Yufka is commonly made throughout Anatolia (1, 7, 9, 12, 15, 18, 26).
Yufka can be made into rolls/wraps, filled with such things as cheese, ground meat, sucuk, pastırma, eggs, bean salad, noodles, pilaf, walnuts and raisins. These are variously known asdurum, dürümeç, sıkma or sıkmaç (16).
In İçel, a type of yufka made from corn and millet flour is known as tapıl (1).
Conclusions and Recommendations
The various grains raised on the fertile soils of Anatolia, and wheat in particular, form the main ingredient for bread, the main staple for the people here. Turkish women produce many different types of delicious bread, which contribute to the richness of Turkish cuisine.
It has been observed that in nearly every region both leavened and unleavened breads are made, baked mostly in an oven, on a sac or in a tandır. In addition to bread, are other important baked goods such as çöreks.
It is difficult to find the flavorful breads that were once baked. They can be found in the villages but in the cities there are very few people left who make their own bread.
Especially in the cities, restaurateurs could make an important contribution towards keeping this Turkish culinary tradition alive. They could make local breads to meet their own needs in their own tandırs, ovens and sac. Commercial bakeries could also devote some of their baking to traditional breads. In addition, more attention should be given to home bread baking, and to this end factories should produce flours that will give a good result when used at home and put this on the market. Formal culinary institutions could also teach their students to make traditional breads.
Comprehensive research should also be done on the traditional types of bread which I have collected in this article.
Source:
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